235. Unstack the Odds--To Beat the Odds, Part 5

Unstack the Odds: Help All Kids Access College—and Graduate!

by

Joe Rottenborn

Executive Director, Mahoning Valley College Access Program (MVCAP)

15. To Beat the Odds, Part 5

An important obstacle, of course, in accessing college and achieving success is the cost of a higher education. As Susan Choy stated, “The price of attending college is still a significant obstacle for students from low- and middle-income families, but financial aid is an equalizer, to some degree. Low-income students enroll at the same rate as middle-income students if they take all the necessary steps toward enrollment.” (Susan P. Choy, Access & Persistence: Findings from 10 Years of Longitudinal Research on Students, American Council on Education, 2002, p. 5.) http://inpathways.net/access.pdf

Others agree that financial aid—and a student’s conception of affordability--can help improve access and success. The authors of Reclaiming the American Dream stated the following in their report: “Both applying for financial aid and applying for college loans improve the likelihood a student will obtain a bachelor’s degree. So does a student’s or parent’s attendance at an information session on financial aid benefits. Likewise, students who believe affordability does not affect their choice of college have an improved chance of attaining bachelor’s degrees.” (William Bedsworth, Susan Colby, and Joe Doctor, Reclaiming the American Dream, The Bridgespan Group, October 2006, p. 12.) http://www.nhscholars.org/Documents/ReclaimingAmericanDream.pdf

Unfortunately, many at-risk students don’t access financial aid. According to the 2006 report for The Bridgespan Group, “Half to three-quarters of low-income students don’t apply for aid; they don’t apply for loans; and/or they don’t attend information sessions on postsecondary aid and its availability.” (William Bedsworth, Susan Colby, and Joe Doctor, Reclaiming the American Dream, The Bridgespan Group, October 2006, p. 15.) http://www.nhscholars.org/Documents/ReclaimingAmericanDream.pdf

Often, underrepresented students and their parents may figure college is out of reach for them because they can’t afford it. Sadly, though understandably, this belief can reduce their access and success in college. According to the writers of Reclaiming the American Dream, “factors that affect the perception of affordability also have an effect on rates of matriculation and completion. Low-income students who attended financial aid information sessions and subsequently applied for financial aid were much more likely to attend and complete college, presumably because they understood both the true cost of college and the types of aid available to them. The simple fact is that in order to make college affordable, low-income students need more financial aid.” (William Bedsworth, Susan Colby, and Joe Doctor, Reclaiming the American Dream, The Bridgespan Group, October 2006, p. 22.) http://www.nhscholars.org/Documents/ReclaimingAmericanDream.pdf

Alberto Cabrera and the researchers at Penn State summarized the varying correlation financial aid—and the types of aid—seemed to have with success in college. They concluded the following: “Research into the effect financial aid plays on degree completion is contradictory. Nora (1990), Voorhees (1987), and St. John (1990) found all forms of federal support equally effective in preventing students from dropping out. However, Stampen and Cabrera (1986, 1988) found persistence rates were highest when student aid packages included work-study programs. More recently, Adelman (1999) reported grant-in-aid and loans had a small but positive contribution to the probability of securing a college degree. On the other hand, Astin (1975) found grants and work-study programs had positive effects on persistence, while loans had negative effects when directed to low-income students. St. John's (1991) comprehensive review of 25 years of research on the effect of financial aid led him to conclude reception of financial aid has a positive effect on persistence to graduation regardless of the type of financial aid. He also noted inconstancies could be attributed to methodological problems in terms of analytical models followed, the use of institutional databases versus national databases and levels of controls.” (Alberto F. Cabrera, Kurt R. Burkum and Steven M. La Nasa, Pathways to a Four-Year Degree: Determinants of Degree Completion Among Socio-Economically Disadvantaged Students, Washington, DC: U.S. Department of Education, 2003, p. 25.) http://www.sheeo.org/access/On%20the%20Right%20Path.pdf

The PSU research team also quantified the correlation of various types (e.g., grants, loans) of financial aid and SES with degree completion; they found this: “For all students, receiving grants-in-aid and loans increases chances of completing a 4-year degree. Recipients of grants-in-aid are 7% more likely to earn a degree, while loan recipients are 12%. SES also moderates the impact of financial aid, particularly for loan recipients. Lowest-SES and Middle Low-SES students receiving loans increase their degree completion chances by 16% and 26%, respectively.” (Alberto F. Cabrera, Kurt R. Burkum and Steven M. La Nasa, Pathways to a Four-Year Degree: Determinants of Degree Completion Among Socio-Economically Disadvantaged Students, Washington, DC: U.S. Department of Education, 2003, p. 35.) http://www.sheeo.org/access/On%20the%20Right%20Path.pdf

234. Unstack the Odds--To Beat the Odds, Part 4

Unstack the Odds: Help All Kids Access College—and Graduate!

by

Joe Rottenborn

Executive Director, Mahoning Valley College Access Program (MVCAP)

15. To Beat the Odds, Part 4

Another correlate of at-risk students who beat the odds to access college and succeed is often the support they receive—from parents, high school staff, and friends. Alberto Cabrera and the Penn State researchers noted this in their 2003 study. As they explained: “Development of degree aspirations as early as the 8th grade, securing high school academic qualifications, applying for college, and successful adjustment to college are related to the extent to which the student receives encouragement from parents, high school personal [sic], and important high school friends (e.g., Cabrera, Nora & Castaneda, 1992; Cabrera & La Nasa, 2001; Flint, 1992; Hossler, Schmitt & Vesper, 1999). This type of encouragement takes different forms, including from motivational support, saving for college, and being involved in school activities (Cabrera & La Nasa, 2001). Encouragement is key for subsequent college enrollment. Perna (2000), for instance, noted that parental involvement in school activities predicts whether the student would enroll at a 4-year college or university following high school graduation.” (Alberto F. Cabrera, Kurt R. Burkum and Steven M. La Nasa, Pathways to a Four-Year Degree: Determinants of Degree Completion Among Socio-Economically Disadvantaged Students, Washington, DC: U.S. Department of Education, 2003, p. 19.) http://www.sheeo.org/access/On%20the%20Right%20Path.pdf

Cabrera, et. al. quantified the correlation of support by parents or friends to a student’s success in college. As they summarized: “Encouragement matters in a student’s chances of getting a college degree. Irrespective of SES, students who received encouragement from parents and friends to pursue a college degree while in high school were more likely to complete this goal. Compared with students whose parents did not encourage them to pursue a college degree, those who did receive parental encouragement increased their chance of degree completion by 5%. The impact of high school peer encouragement is similar, increasing degree completion chances by 6%. (Alberto F. Cabrera, Kurt R. Burkum and Steven M. La Nasa, Pathways to a Four-Year Degree: Determinants of Degree Completion Among Socio-Economically Disadvantaged Students, Washington, DC: U.S. Department of Education, 2003, p. 20.) http://www.sheeo.org/access/On%20the%20Right%20Path.pdf

Importantly, whether a student’s friends were headed for college seemed to correlate with their own matriculation. According to the authors of the 2006 report Reclaiming the American Dream, “In the general category of culture and social supports, the factor most likely to bump up a student’s odds of completing college was having a significant portion of friends who were also planning to attend college. [emphasis added] Having friends who “value learning” also improves the odds, although the effects are less pronounced. These findings reinforce the views of the American Council on Education, which reports that students are four times more likely to enroll in college if a majority of their friends also plan to attend than if their friends do not. Put simply, cohorts of students matter.” (William Bedsworth, Susan Colby, and Joe Doctor, Reclaiming the American Dream, The Bridgespan Group, October 2006, p. 11.) http://www.nhscholars.org/Documents/ReclaimingAmericanDream.pdf As Susan Choy concluded in that ACE report of 2002, “More at-risk students apply to college if their friends plan to go.” (Susan P. Choy, Access & Persistence: Findings from 10 Years of Longitudinal Research on Students, American Council on Education, 2002, p. 5.) http://inpathways.net/access.pdf

The Penn State researchers also linked and quantified support with a student’s SES; they noted: “Our analysis of the 1982 High School Class reveals that a student’s likelihood to receive encouragement to secure a college degree from parents, high school personnel, and high school friends was related to his/her socioeconomic background. As a whole, Highest-SES students received more encouragement, while the reverse is true for Lowest-SES students. [emphasis added] This encouragement-SES association ranged from .13 to .248. Ninety three percent of Highest-SES students reported their parents encouraged them to pursue a college degree. In contrast, 69% of Lowest-SES students were similarly encouraged. While 77% of Highest-SES students reported encouragement from high school professionals, only 61% of Lowest-SES students reported receiving this sort of encouragement. The SES-based encouragement gap is even more pronounced when encouragement originates from high school friends. Less than 50% of Lowest-SES students were encouraged by their high school friends to earn a college degree, whereas over three-fourths of Highest-SES students were encouraged by their friends to become a college graduate. Given the connection between encouragement and success in college, this SES-encouragement association is troublesome.” (Alberto F. Cabrera, Kurt R. Burkum and Steven M. La Nasa, Pathways to a Four-Year Degree: Determinants of Degree Completion Among Socio-Economically Disadvantaged Students, Washington, DC: U.S. Department of Education, 2003, p. 20.) http://www.sheeo.org/access/On%20the%20Right%20Path.pdf

Interestingly, as for parental supports, the correlational evidence was less strong. Indeed, according to Reclaiming the American Dream, “By contrast, only one of four parental supports was statistically significant: the parent and student visiting at least one college together. [emphasis added] Unlike other forms of parental support, such as checking homework, encouraging students to take the SAT or ACT, and discussing college applications, campus visits appear to make college and its accessibility much more tangible.” (William Bedsworth, Susan Colby, and Joe Doctor, Reclaiming the American Dream, The Bridgespan Group, October 2006, p. 11.) http://www.nhscholars.org/Documents/ReclaimingAmericanDream.pdf

One demographic fact not supportive of a student’s matriculation and graduation involved their own parental responsibility. Simply put, if they were a parent, their chances of access and success were reduced. As Clifford Adelman had stated in his report: “Socioeconomic status had a modest and diminishing association with bachelor’s degree attainment. Minority status had a modest negative association until performance (first-year performance and continuing performance) was taken into account, at which point it had no effect Gender had no effect at any stage of the model. The only demographic variable to have a strong (and in this case, negative) association with degree completion was becoming a parent by age 20.” (Clifford Adelman, The Toolbox Revisited: Paths to Degree Completion From High School Through College, Washington, DC: U.S. Department of Education, 2006. p. 6.) http://www2.ed.gov/rschstat/research/pubs/toolboxrevisit/toolbox.pdf

The researchers at Penn State University quantified the correlation of being a parent on a student’s likelihood of transferring from a 2-year program to a 4-year school as follows: “For all students, having children before completing a college degree reduces their chances to transfer to a 4-year institution by 19%. Among Lowest-SES students, this effect is about 14%.” (Alberto F. Cabrera, Kurt R. Burkum and Steven M. La Nasa, Pathways to a Four-Year Degree: Determinants of Degree Completion Among Socio-Economically Disadvantaged Students, Washington, DC: U.S. Department of Education, 2003, p. 16.) http://www.sheeo.org/access/On%20the%20Right%20Path.pdf

Cabrera and the PSU researchers also quantified a student’s SES with becoming a parent while seeking a college degree. As they stated: “Having children while attending college has been identified out as another risk factor for persisting in college to degree completion. Nora, Cabrera, Hagedorn, and Pascarella (1996) reported family responsibilities had the effect of competing with the academic and social components of the institution, thereby lessening a student’s engagement in the college experience, intellectual development, and subsequent persistence. Adelman (1999) adds that having children while attending college lessens one’s chances of completing a college degree within ten years upon high school graduation. While the above findings are true for all students, the extent to which this atrisk behavior is present among Lowest-SES students has not been examined. For our student population, we find Lowest-SES are indeed more prone to having children while attending college. Twenty four percent of Lowest-SES students reported having at least one child by age 23. This number is 18%, 11%, and 5% greater than the ones reported by Highest-SES, Middle-High SES, and Middle-Low SES students, respectively.” (Alberto F. Cabrera, Kurt R. Burkum and Steven M. La Nasa, Pathways to a Four-Year Degree: Determinants of Degree Completion Among Socio-Economically Disadvantaged Students, Washington, DC: U.S. Department of Education, 2003, p. 26.) http://www.sheeo.org/access/On%20the%20Right%20Path.pdf

Finally, the Penn State research team examined the correlation of becoming a parent and degree completion. They quantified that correlation with graduation for students of various SES designations, as follows: “Incurring parental responsibilities while pursuing a college degree hampers ones chances of degree completion by 23%. This negative effect is felt most by Highest-SES students for whom having children by age 23 decreases their degree completion chances by 48%. (Alberto F. Cabrera, Kurt R. Burkum and Steven M. La Nasa, Pathways to a Four-Year Degree: Determinants of Degree Completion Among Socio-Economically Disadvantaged Students, Washington, DC: U.S. Department of Education, 2003, p. 31.) http://www.sheeo.org/access/On%20the%20Right%20Path.pdf

233. Unstack the Odds--To Beat the Odds, Part 3

Unstack the Odds: Help All Kids Access College—and Graduate!

by

Joe Rottenborn

Executive Director, Mahoning Valley College Access Program (MVCAP)

15. To Beat the Odds, Part 3

At-risk students who beat the odds have aspirations to access college and succeed. In short, they expect to matriculate and graduate. A study done in 2003 for The Brooking Institution noted as much; as its authors stated: “Students who expect to attend college are more likely to graduate from high school and enroll in postsecondary school than students with similar abilities and family background characteristics who expect to obtain only a high school diploma.” (Barbara Schneider, Michael Kirst, and Frederick M. Hess, “Strategies for Success: High School and Beyond,” Brookings Papers on Education Policy, No. 6, 2003, The Brookings Institution, p. 55.) http://www.jstor.org/pss/20067254

This aspiration to matriculate influences students in their selection of courses—which enhances their academic preparation for college. The 2006 report Reclaiming the American Dream indicated this expectation: “Our analysis found that when a student expects to take a college-prep curriculum, there is a significant beneficial effect.” (William Bedsworth, Susan Colby, and Joe Doctor, Reclaiming the American Dream, The Bridgespan Group, October 2006, p. 11.) http://www.nhscholars.org/Documents/ReclaimingAmericanDream.pdf

The researchers at Penn State University also summarized the effect on students in the 1988 high school sophomore cohort of aspirations to matriculate as well as the correlation of socioeconomic status (SES) with these aspirations. As they stated: “Aspiring for a 4-year college degree as early as the 8th grade enables middle school students, high school students, and their families to ready themselves for college (Cabrera & La Nasa, 2001). Students aspiring for at least a 4-year degree are predisposed to take the appropriate course curriculum, complete high school, apply to college, enroll, and eventually graduate (e.g., Adelman, 1999 and Cabrera & La Nasa, 2001). Some research indicates SES can moderate degree aspirations. While examining degree aspirations among 1988 middle school students, Terenzini, Cabrera, and Bernal (2001) found a difference of 29% between Lowest-SES and Highest-SES students’ aspirations for at least a college degree.” (Alberto F. Cabrera, Kurt R. Burkum and Steven M. La Nasa, Pathways to a Four-Year Degree: Determinants of Degree Completion Among Socio-Economically Disadvantaged Students, Washington, DC: U.S. Department of Education, 2003, p. 21.) http://www.sheeo.org/access/On%20the%20Right%20Path.pdf

Alberto Cabrera and the other Penn State researchers quantified their findings on students’ aspirations to access and success—specifically, underscoring its importance as a correlate; in addition, they indicated the moderating effect of SES. As they concluded: “Aspiring for a college degree is a good predictor of eventual college degree completion. Across all SES quartiles, students with college degree aspirations while still in high school were 26% more likely to do so, as compared with students without such aspirations. SES moderates the effect of collegiate aspirations. While all students benefit from this factor, Middle Low-SES students benefit the most. Lowest-SES students holding degree aspirations while in high school increase their chances of completing a degree by 17%. Middle Low-SES, Middle High-SES, and Highest-SES students increase their degree completion chances by 38%, 20%, and 28%, respectively (Alberto F. Cabrera, Kurt R. Burkum and Steven M. La Nasa, Pathways to a Four-Year Degree: Determinants of Degree Completion Among Socio-Economically Disadvantaged Students, Washington, DC: U.S. Department of Education, 2003, p. 30.) http://www.sheeo.org/access/On%20the%20Right%20Path.pdf

The PSU team further quantified these aspirations among students by SES, noting differences among them, in this way: “As is the case for the 1988 middle school student cohort, we find significant SES based differences in aspiring for a 4-year degree among 1982 High School graduates who entered post secondary education during the 1982-83 academic year (r=.335). As the SES level increases, so does the chance to develop college degree aspirations by the senior year in high school. The SES-based gap in degree aspirations is astounding. [emphasis added] Seventy percent of the Lowest-SES students who attended postsecondary education did not aspire for a college degree while a high school senior. This pattern is reversed among Highest-SES students, whereby 74% of them had developed college aspirations before entering postsecondary education. In other words, Lowest-SES students were 44% less likely to aspire to a four degree than Highest-SES students.” (Alberto F. Cabrera, Kurt R. Burkum and Steven M. La Nasa, Pathways to a Four-Year Degree: Determinants of Degree Completion Among Socio-Economically Disadvantaged Students, Washington, DC: U.S. Department of Education, 2003, p. 21.) http://www.sheeo.org/access/On%20the%20Right%20Path.pdf

The authors of Reclaiming the American Dream offered a most important insight from their study, as they emphasized the importance of a belief the student had that a college degree was essential to achieving their career plans. As the researchers stated: “Every variable we studied in the category of college expectations had a statistically significant effect on college completion. Nevertheless, one in particular stood out: the student’s expectation that he or she would need a bachelor’s degree to pursue the career he or she wished to have at age 30. [emphasis added] When this expectation was in place, a student had a 46 percentage point higher rate of obtaining a bachelor’s degree. This number is astonishing and, in effect, binary: students who make the connection between college and career graduate at a rate of 55%; those who don’t at a rate of 9%. In other words, even when academic preparation is held constant, high school graduates who subscribe to this belief are more than six times as likely to earn their bachelor’s degrees.” (William Bedsworth, Susan Colby, and Joe Doctor, Reclaiming the American Dream, The Bridgespan Group, October 2006, p. 11.) http://www.nhscholars.org/Documents/ReclaimingAmericanDream.pdf

231. Unstack the Odds--To Beat the Odds, Part 1

Unstack the Odds: Help All Kids Access College—and Graduate!

by

Joe Rottenborn

Executive Director, Mahoning Valley College Access Program (MVCAP)

15. To Beat the Odds, Part 1

Socioeconomic status (SES) matters when it comes to students accessing college and graduating. An analysis by researchers at Penn State University of a national cohort of students from 10th grade in 1980 through their postsecondary experience in 1993 quantified those odds. According to their findings, “Thirty-five percent of the members of the High School Sophomore Cohort of 1980 obtained at least a bachelor’s degree by 1993. When the socioeconomic background of the student is examined, our analyses suggest a stratification pattern whereby: Lowest-SES students have a 13% chance to graduate within 11 years. [emphasis added] The graduation rate for Highest-SES students is 57%.” (Alberto F. Cabrera, Kurt R. Burkum and Steven M. La Nasa, Pathways to a Four-Year Degree: Determinants of Degree Completion Among Socio-Economically Disadvantaged Students, Washington, DC: U.S. Department of Education, 2003, p. i.) http://www.sheeo.org/access/On%20the%20Right%20Path.pdf

Simply put, low SES students without sufficient academic preparation have reduced chances of success in college. As the authors of the report Reclaiming the American Dream stated: “Students who lack sufficient academic preparation in high school, particularly low-income students, have exceptionally little chance of attending and completing college.” [emphasis added] (William Bedsworth, Susan Colby, and Joe Doctor, Reclaiming the American Dream, The Bridgespan Group, October 2006, p. 19.) http://www.nhscholars.org/Documents/ReclaimingAmericanDream.pdf

Unfortunately, according to that report, although low-income students often expressed the intention of going to college, they often lacked the necessary academic preparation. As Reclaiming the American Dream stated: “Put simply, at least one-third of all low-income students expect to go to college but do not plan to take the coursework that will enable them to pursue that path.” [emphasis in original] (William Bedsworth, Susan Colby, and Joe Doctor, Reclaiming the American Dream, The Bridgespan Group, October 2006, p. 11.) http://www.nhscholars.org/Documents/ReclaimingAmericanDream.pdf

The Penn State researchers analyzed what they termed “Pathways to a Four-Year Degree.” In their view, “The High School Sophomore Cohort of 1980 followed nine different pathways to a 4-year degree. These paths were formed by a combination of academic resources secured in high school and the first type of postsecondary institution attended. The chance to secure a 4-year degree varies in relation to the particular pathway followed.

• The pathway most likely to lead to a 4-year degree is one defined by acquiring high academic resources in high school and entering at a 4-year institution upon high school completion. Those who followed this path had a 78% chance to graduate within 11 years.

• Most Highest-SES students followed this pathway, resulting in an 81% graduation rate.

• Most Lowest-SES student journeyed on a pathway defined by moderate academic resources and first enrollment in a 2-year institution. Only 3.3% of these students earned a 4-year degree.” [emphasis added] (Alberto F. Cabrera, Kurt R. Burkum and Steven M. La Nasa, Pathways to a Four-Year Degree: Determinants of Degree Completion Among Socio-Economically Disadvantaged Students, Washington, DC: U.S. Department of Education, 2003, p. i.) http://www.sheeo.org/access/On%20the%20Right%20Path.pdf

Nonetheless, in the view of Clifford Adelman--who had first analyzed that national 1980 cohort of high school sophomores until these students were age 30 in 1993--academic preparation [emphasis added] could help overcome the handicap of a student’s low socioeconomic status. In his words: “Academic Resources (the composite of high school curriculum, test scores, and class rank) produces a much steeper curve toward bachelor’s degree completion than does socioeconomic status. Students from the lowest two SES quintiles who are also in the highest Academic Resources quintile earn bachelor’s degrees at a higher rate than a majority of students from the top SES quintile.” (Clifford Adelman, Answers in the Tool Box: Academic Intensity, Attendance Patterns, and Bachelor’s Degree Attainment, Washington, DC: U.S. Department of Education, 1999, p. 3.) http://www.nacada.ksu.edu/NationalConf/2007/Handouts/S229H3.pdf

This senior researcher from the U.S. Department of Education also addressed the importance of academic preparation on underrepresented students. In his view, “The impact of a high school curriculum of high academic intensity and quality on degree completion is far more pronounced and positive for African-American and Latino students than any other pre-college indicator of academic resources. The impact for African-American and Latino students is also much greater than it is for white students.” (Clifford Adelman, Answers in the Tool Box: Academic Intensity, Attendance Patterns, and Bachelor’s Degree Attainment, Washington, DC: U.S. Department of Education, 1999, p. 3.) http://www.nacada.ksu.edu/NationalConf/2007/Handouts/S229H3.pdf

Like Adelman, the Penn State researchers found that other factors could mitigate the effects of low SES. As they concluded: “The 44% SES-based degree completion gap separating Lowest-SES students from Highest-SES students is reduced to 24% when a myriad of factors are considered simultaneously. Degree completion is affected most by SES, academic resources, degree aspirations, enrollment patterns, taking college courses in math and sciences, financial aid, and having children while attending college.” (Alberto F. Cabrera, Kurt R. Burkum and Steven M. La Nasa, Pathways to a Four-Year Degree: Determinants of Degree Completion Among Socio-Economically Disadvantaged Students, Washington, DC: U.S. Department of Education, 2003, p. i.) http://www.sheeo.org/access/On%20the%20Right%20Path.pdf

Therefore, despite having the odds stacked against them, some low-income students and those from underrepresented groups do matriculate and graduate from college. Several factors have been found to be most integral to their success. A 2006 study done for The Bridgespan Group suggested the most important in no uncertain terms. As its authors, echoing Adelman, stated: “Academic preparation is the most effective means of increasing the odds that students will graduate from high school ready for college, matriculate, and eventually receive their degrees. Cliff Adelman, a Department of Education researcher, has found that, ‘A rigorous high school curriculum has greater impact on bachelor’s degree completion than any other pre-college indicator of academic preparation, regardless of socioeconomic status or race.’ These results have been confirmed specifically for low-income students by A. F. Cabrera, who reports that low-income students enroll and progress in college at much higher rates when they graduate high school academically-prepared.” (William Bedsworth, Susan Colby, and Joe Doctor, Reclaiming the American Dream, The Bridgespan Group, October 2006, p. 4.) http://www.nhscholars.org/Documents/ReclaimingAmericanDream.pdf

According to Clifford Adelman, “Academic Resources” are one of two most important variables to consider; he defines this concept as “a composite measure of the academic content and performance the student brings forward from secondary school into higher education. This measure is dominated by the intensity and quality of secondary school curriculum.” [emphasis in original] (Clifford Adelman, Answers in the Tool Box: Academic Intensity, Attendance Patterns, and Bachelor’s Degree Attainment, Washington, DC: U.S. Department of Education, 1999, pp. 1-2.) http://www.nacada.ksu.edu/NationalConf/2007/Handouts/S229H3.pdf

Adelman quantified the importance of various components of these “Academic Resources” as follows: “High school curriculum reflects 41 percent of the academic resources students bring to higher education; test scores, 30 percent; and class rank/academic GPA, 29 percent. No matter how one divides the universe of students, the curriculum measure produces a higher percent earning bachelor’s degrees than either of the other measures. The correlation of curriculum with bachelor’s degree attainment is also higher (.54) than test scores (.48) or class rank/GPA (.44).” (Clifford Adelman, Answers in the Tool Box: Academic Intensity, Attendance Patterns, and Bachelor’s Degree Attainment, Washington, DC: U.S. Department of Education, 1999, p. 3.) http://www.nacada.ksu.edu/NationalConf/2007/Handouts/S229H3.pdf